"Globalisation and digitalisation have connected people, cities, countries and continents in ways that vastly increase our individual and collective potential. But the same forces have also made the world more volatile, more complex, more uncertain and more ambiguous. In this world, education is no longer just about teaching students something but about helping them develop a reliable compass and the tools to navigate ambiguity. Literacy in the 20th century was about extracting and processing pre-coded and – for school students – usually carefully curated information; in the 21st century, it is about constructing and validating knowledge. In the past, teachers could tell students to look up information in an encyclopaedia and to rely on that information as accurate and true. Nowadays, Google presents them with millions of answers and nobody tells them what is right or wrong, and true or not true. The more knowledge technology allows us to search and access, the more important it is to develop deep understanding and the capacity to navigate ambiguity, triangulate viewpoints, and make sense out of content. PISA 2018 results show that when students were confronted with literacy tasks that required them to understand implicit cues pertaining to the content or source of the information, an average of just 9% of 15-year-old students in OECD countries had enough of a reading proficiency level to be able to successfully distinguish facts from opinions. True, this figure is up from 7% in 2000 but, in the meantime, the demand for literacy skills has fundamentally changed. (...)"